TERMINOLOGY AND THE BASS VIOL.

By Peter H. Adams

The terms viola bastarda, lyra viol, division viol, and to a lesser extent consort bass elicit considerable confusion. This paper sheds some light on these terms to show that the terms originated in techniques of either composition or performance and have been applied by authors with varying degrees of accuracy to bass viole da gamba. To begin with, these terms never were applied to the subcontra bass viola da gamba, or violone. Viola bastarda is of Italian ancestry. Lyra viol is of English ancestry. The term division is evidently of English origin. Though, the technique is not unique to any country, as will be shown. The history of the term consort bass is less well understood but seems to have an English origin.[i]

The first section of this paper discusses occurrences and definitions of the terms. The second section discusses my belief that a short-lived, late baroque instrument evolved out of a misunderstanding. This instrument was a late baroque, consort-sized bass viola da gamba with sympathetic strings and was the predecessor of the baryton. It was given various names at various times.

These terms have all been applied to both techniques and instruments. Thus, instead of four terms, this paper examines eight terms (i.e. viola bastarda, as a technique and as an instrument, etc.). One should therefore not be surprised when historic authors confused matters even further by misusing the terms. Fortunately, it is this author’s contention that though these terms could apply to both musical styles and instruments, for all practical purposes the terms have little meaning except when applied to music, as will be shown.

The first use of the term, viola bastarda cited by Jason Paras is 1584 from Girolamo Dalla Casa Il vero modo di diminuir (Venice, 1584) Vol. 10-19. The last use of this term Ian Woodfield cites is 1626, in Vincenzo Bonizzi Alcune opere di diversi auttori, a diversi voci, passagiate principalmente per la viola bastarda, ma ancue per ogni sorte di stomenti, e di voci (Venice, 1626). Thus, viola bastarda music existed at least between 1584 and 1626. These dates do not well overlap the usage dates of lyra viol; being 1602 to at least 1682.[ii]

The term viola bastarda is not found in any historical English publications or within the Oxford English Dictionary. The only other uses of this term are by Germanic sources. Paras states (p. 16) "the two notable uses of the term 'viola bastarda' in non-Italian sources, by Michael Praetorius and by Adam Jarzebski, are uncharacteristic of the Italian repertory..."

In his Syntagma Musicum, Praetorius includes a woodcut of a bass viola da gamba (plate XX), which he labels a viola bastarda. Since the publication of that book, the lyra viola and to a lesser degree division viol have been incorrectly equated with the viola bastarda. Syntagma Musicum contains two problems regarding the viola da gamba. Since neither the terms viola bastarda nor lyra viol are indigenous to Germany, one can understand Praetorius' misunderstanding, as shown in the following quote describing the viola da gamba pictured in his book.

                "This is a kind of viol tuned like the tenor viol, which can if required by used in its place;

it has a longer, deeper body, however. I do not know if the name signifies 'a bastard of all

                sizes'---since it is not limited to any one part, that is. A good player can set himself to play

                madrigals, or whatever else likes, on this instrument; playing now up in to cantus, now

                down in the bass, now in the middle or tenor and alto, and decorating the whole piece with

                divisions---thus nearly all the parts can be distinctly heard at entries and cadence ... "

Regarding this quote, Paras (p. 16) makes this observation.

                "[Praetorius'] description gives characteristics of the English lyra-viol as though they

                applied to the viola bastarda ... Praetorius seems to have confused the two instruments

                because of an insufficient acquaintance with their repertories and styles."

                The other problem found in Praetorius’ book is that all translations of the first line concur that Praetorius means that the viola bastarda is tuned like a bass, not a tenor, due to different uses of names of the time.

            Praetorius believes that the viola bastarda was smaller than a consort bass. Thus, Praetorius applied both terms to a technique and instruments. Some of his confusion is understandable, as the lyra viol technique only seems to have appeared some eighteen years before Praetorius published his book. Praetorius, however, had access to the library in Wittenberg, which by some accounts was one of the largest in Europe at the time. Yet, what resources were available to him is quite uncertain.

            Since Praetorius was the only significant source of information about musical instruments of the early 17th century, his confusion can still be found in many works, such as Van der Straeten (where he uses a mistranslation of Praetorius), Curt Sachs, and others. Thus, care must be taken in reading these works to avoid further confusion.[iii]

            Viola bastarda technique has these features. First, the music has an improvisitory sound, based upon four part popular polyphonic madrigal. Second, viola bastarda music has dramatic register changes (with changing clefs), diminutions, and written-out ornamentations. Third, the solo music is melodic. Also, Paras cited no historic examples written in tablature. Bastarda music was never written in tablature and never used ornamental signs.

            Current thinking about the viola bastarda as an instrument is this. Paras is correct in believing that Praetorius was mistaken in equating viola bastarda and lyra viol techniques. However, Praetorius is correct in that any small-sized bass could easily accommodate either style of music. In fact, playing lyra viol music on a modern copy of a Ciciliano bass (such as one in the Kunsthistorische Museum in Vienna) is more satisfactory than playing on a larger bass viola da gamba, if one wishes to tune up the strings to accommodate some of the alternate tunings so common in lyra viol music or if one has small hands.

            Unfortunately, identifying surviving viole bastarda instruments is problematic. This author believes that any bass viola da gamba identified as a lyra viol that was made in Italy prior to 1600 should not be described as a lyra viol. Yet, most literature about surviving viole da gamba is not of uniform detail to aid research. Additionally, based on Praetorius' writings, at the end of the baroque, when all but the consort bass had passed out of use, sympathetic strings were once again applied to select consort bass viola da gamba, primarily within regions controlled by the Hapsburg empire. This region also included The Netherlands. Because of Praetorius' writings, this late baroque consort viol has been occasionally referred to as a viola bastarda. Thus, the term has been used to describe a style of playing from ca. 1584-1626 and a consort bass viola da gamba that had sympathetic strings made mainly in Austrian-influenced Europe, after 1618.

            Due to this confusion about instrument names, at least one contemporary library cataloger using the OCLC data base, miscataloged Vincenzo Bonizzi's Alcune opere di diversi auttori : diverse voci : passaggiate principalmente per la viola bastarda, ma anco per ogni forte [sic] di stromenti e di voci. (Venezia, 1626). Within the citation, appears key words (actually subject headings) added during cataloging. Viola bastarda does not appear as a searchable term, outside of the title. Instead, lyra viol incorrectly appears. Thus, the confusion about terms has resulted in a confused catalog citation. Another cataloger also cataloged this same work, but simply used "viol" as the key term. One needs to understand that key terms within OCLC are strictly controlled, and scholarly works, such as the New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians are used to establish subject headings. Thus, neither cataloger was able to use "viola bastarda" as a subject heading (at least at the time of cataloging) because of confusion among scholars.

            From this discussion, one can see that authors who use the term viola bastarda generally did so based on faulty information, instead of examining primary sources, such as repertoire and instruments. This error needs to be purged from current reference books.

A history of the term "lyra viol" is examined here, mainly through the works of Michael Praetorius, Frank Traficante[iv], Jason Paras, Peter Tourin[v], Ian Woodfield, and extant lyra viol music.

The term lyra viol appears in English printed sources between ca. 1600 to ca. 1682. The term was used correctly in England, misused in Germany, and never used in Italy or France. One of the most complete sources available to this author to discuss the lyra viol, though not historic, is Francis Galpin. On page 68 of his book is the following quote.[vi]

                "The lyra or Lero Viol was introduced to the English public shortly after the year 1600 by

                Daniel Farrant, a Viol-player in the King's Musik under James I. In 1605 Tobias Hume

                published Ayres ... for two Leero Viols..., and in 1609 lessons for it were published by

                Alfonso Ferrabosco ... Metal strings were added to some instruments, which, running

                through a hollow passage beneath the fingerboard and over a little bridge about half an inch

                in height, were not stopped with the hand ... Bacon, in his Sylva Sylvarum, alludes to this

                peculiarity of the English lyra-Viol."

This quote does not make mention of the first published collection of lyra viol music, by Robert Jones titled Second Booke of Songs and Ayres (1601). From page 69 of Galpin's book comes this quote.

                "Playford's Musick's Recreation on the Viol played Lyra way (1661) is quoted "Of this sort

                of viol [ones strung with sympathetic strings] I have seen many: but time and disuse have

                set them aside ..." Though the English players of the latter seventeenth century thus

                dispensed with the sympathetic strings, they were adopted on the Continent, and produced

                the viola d'amore and also the baryton."

            From these quotes, one can deduce these facts. A Daniel Farrant may well have been the first person in England to use sympathetic strings on a viola da gamba as no earlier information about viols with sympathetic strings seems to exist. The use of sympathetic strings on the viol lasted for less than 60 years.

            Thus, this term has had three meanings throughout history. The first meaning is lyra viol, as a technique. The second meaning is lyra viol, as a small bass viol, without sympathetic strings. The third meaning is lyra viol, as a short-lived viol, with sympathetic strings, and the one pictured in plate XX of Praetorius. In his book, Praetorius appends to the quote on page 17-18 of this chapter the following.

                "Recently in England the instrument has been fitted with a peculiar addition. Under the six

                ordinary strings lie eight steel and twisted brass strings, on a brass bridge (like those used

                on a pandora). These are tuned to accord exactly with the upper gut strings; then, when one

                of the latter is excited by the bow or the finger, the lower strings of the steel or brass

                immediately vibrate in sympathy. This considerably adds to the beauty of the sound."

            The major features of lyra viol technique are these. First, the music is usually written in tablature. Second, the music is generally chordal, with up to six note chords possible. The five string viola da gamba had long since been replaced by the six string viola da gamba and the seven string viola da gamba is of later French origin. Third, lyra viol music often changes texture by interspersing florid ornamentation, and fast scale runs with choral passages or even imitation of polyphony; characteristics never found in viola bastarda music. Thus, the music can be thick and heavy, then light and brilliant, with multiple affects per piece. Fourth, lyra viol music is not written exclusively for one viola da gamba as can be seen in Martha Bishop’s lyra viol editions (Tab for One, Tab for Two, etc.). Fifth, lyra viol music is written in many different tunings. Bishop's Tablature for One includes twenty eight different tunings. Praetorius mentions only eight, and Traficante (NGDMI, I, 578) states that about sixty tunings were used. Again, these characteristics are not within the style of viola bastarda music. Sixth, while lyra viol technique initially began as an accompaniment to the voice, it quickly incorporated almost all styles of viola da gamba music then in use, including solo instrumental forms, dance music, divisions and diminutions, chordal transcriptions of poplar vocal music of the time, and, arguably, even viola bastarda effects.

            Myra viol technique quickly spread throughout Sweden, Germany, and France. However, the French composers tended to prefer staff notation over tablature and later wrote for the 7 string viola da gamba. One example is Dubuisson's manuscript in the Library of Congress (in which a single one work appears in tablature), and Le Sieur de Machy's Pièces de viole : en musique et en tablature, differentes les unes des austres, et sur plusieurs tons; Elles contiennent deux liures, et sont les premieres qui jusques à present ayent paru au jour. Paris: L'autheur, 1685, 52, 50 [i.e. 35] p. Microfilm: Paris: Bibliothèque nationale, [n.d.]. As French composers did not use the term lyra viol, French music of the late Baroque, is not identified as being lyra viol music despite very obvious similarities.

            As lyra viol music requires great agility on the viol, small instruments accommodate these needs. The extensive use of ornamentation and multiple stops also are more easily played upon a smaller viola da gamba, equipped with a wider fingerboard. Thus, lyra viol technique is most often played upon a small-size bass viol. However, this is dependent upon the musician’s hand size. This author is quite content playing lyra viol music on a consort bass.

            As for lyra viol as an instrument, Praetorius (and others) incorrectly state that lyra viols had a rosette. An examination of surviving instruments show that many viola da gamba, including tenors, and trebles, have rosettes. As for the use of sympathetic strings, currently, no surviving English viole da gamba are know to this author that ever had sympathetic strings. Tourin’s Viollist did not record such information. Any surviving instrument from that time must have been altered. Alternatively, the increased pressure of the sympathetic strings upon the instrument’s top could easily have caused the top to implode and all but destroy the instrument.

            The term division is primarily used in England. Traficante (NGDMI I, 573) defines division as "A term used in England during the 17th century for a technique of variations in which the notes of a cantus firmus, or ground, are divided into shorter ones, usually not of the same pitch." One of the most important works using this technique is Christopher Simson's The Division-Violist (London, 1667). Frank Traficante (NGDMI I, 573) refers to this work in the following quote.

                "During the first half of the 17th century in England divisions were played on the consort bass and especially

                the lyra viol. Tobias Hume included a galliard with divisions for bass viol in The First Part of Ayres (1650), as

                well as an early reference to division ... by about 1650, however, a special instrument, mid-way in size between

                the consort bass and the lyra viol, was developed specially for division playing ... According to Simpson,

                division can be separated into three categories: breaking the ground, ... descant, which consists of dividing

                imagined melodies above the ground; and mixed division, which is a mixture of the first two ..."

            Traficante also states that divisions were written for both treble and bass viole da gamba (p. 574). Divisions were not limited to the viola da gamba. The Division Flute was published in London in 1722.

            The technique of making divisions is not unique to England. Both G. Dalla Casa, in Il vero modo di diminuir (Venice, 1584), and Diego Ortiz, in Trattado de glosas sobre clausulas y otros generos de puntos en la musica de violones (Rome, 1553), include the technique of divisions. Though, the term division was not applied.

            Characteristics of division viol music are these. First, the music is very florid. Second, it is based on ornamentation of instrumental, monophonic music. Often, the work begins with a single phrase that is then reworked in theme-and-variation form. Third, this style is often accompanied by a continuo instrument. Not adding any clarity, is the fact that many pieces of solo viola da gamba music written in tablature are called divisions and many pieces labeled division are not written in tablature. Possibly the most complete historical definition of the division viol is found in John Playford's A Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick. In it, he states the following.

                "There are three sorts of Bass-Viols, as there are three manners of ways in

                playing. First, a Bass-Viol for consort must be one of the largest size, and the Strings

                proportionable. Secondly, a Bass-Viol for Divisions must be of a less size, and the

                Strings according. Thirdly, a Bass-Viol to play Lyra-way, that is by Tableture [sic], must

                be somewhat less than the two former, and strung proportionably".

Note the annoying lack of measurements.

Characteristics of the division viol are these. Since playing divisions requires agility, a small bass is often used, and arguably somewhat larger than a lyra viol, but to what extent has never been identified in historical sources. Virtually any small size bass viola da gamba is suitable for playing divisions, depending upon the player’s hand size. Also, the fingerboard and bridge of division viols might have been rounder than the lyra viol, as chordal playing is less common in division viol music. A rounder bridge also allows for more volume. As strings would be further apart, one can use more weight to produce volume. This statement is based upon modern instruments. Musicians are quite able to use division viols to play viola bastarda, lyra viol, division, and consort viol music. As for surviving division viols, few museum catalogs use the term. Thus, identifying examples was not possible given the resources at hand.

            To conclude, division viol technique is first seen in Spain and Italy during the 16^th century, and later in the 17^th century in England. It might or might not appear in tablature notation. It is most often a solo style with a possible continuo line. Division viol is unlike viola bastarda music in these aspects. Viola bastarda music is evidently unique to Italy (with the uncharacteristic exception of Jarzebeski’s music). Viola bastarda music is without accompaniment, and is improvised solo music based upon polyphonic, vocal music. Division viol music is improvised variations of a single musical phrase. It does not change registers as frequently as viola bastarda music.

            The last term briefly mentioned here is consort viol. Consensus among writers is that the consort viol is the largest bass viol. It is assumed that the viol's size is the result of performance needs, as consort viols do not need as much agility as do smaller bass viole da gamba. Instead, the consort bass needs to produce a firm sound that can be heard in varying musical textures. This very property probably enabled it to survive beyond the baroque era.

            Having summarized these terms the following comments are offered to show that the use of these terms after the fact have resulted in no end of confusion. Regarding the late history of the viol, the only work that this author has seen that discusses the viol is Laurence Witten “Apollo, Orpheus, and David. A Study of the Crucial Century in the Development of Bowed Strings in North Italy 1480-1580 as Seen in Graphic Evidence and Some Surviving Instruments.” In his article (p. 7), he says "... a comparatively small and shortlived demand for viols (of powerful violin-like construction) seem to have been created in Italian court orchestras by northern music and/or musicians." Presumably, this means consort viols were built to meet precepts of the Hapsburg court then occupying Bologna other parts of Northern Italy, and the Low Counties. At least one surviving late baroque bass viol exists that might be classified as a late baroque viola bastarda. This instrument is a bass viola da gamba made Johannes Florenus Guidantus of Bologna, dated 1728 housed in the Shrine to Music Museum. This instrument strongly suggests that the maker followed Praetorius' description of a viola bastarda. First, the instrument had, at one time, twelve sympathetic strings, as can be seen from the twelve plugs in the back of the scroll, along with a filled slot through which the strings entered the back of the peg box. Second, the instrument is a large consort bass with a substantial volume. A second bass viola da gamba still exists with sympathetic strings made by Johann Ulrich, now in the Toronto Museum.

            Other interesting, atypical viola da gamba features exist on the Guidantus bass. First, the plates overlap the ribs in a manner like that of the violin. Second, the viol is very narrow across the plates, and has very deep ribs, proportional to its size. Third, the viol has violin-like corners. Fourth, the scroll and sound holes of the viol suggest an influence of Nicolo Amati, Guidantus’ teacher. Measurements of this instrument can be had by contacting the Shrine to Music Museum on the University of South Dakota campus.[vii] Fifth, the tone, volume, and response to the bow by this viol are more robust than any viol so far played by this author. These features are more suggestive of a violoncello, and thus the term "late baroque viola bastarda" is cautiously offered here.

            Adding absolutely no clarity to this discussion were the works of Nicholas Bessaraboff Ancient European Musical Instruments, (Boston Museum of Fine Art, 1949), p. 372, 438 note 812, and p.444 note 921 in which he discusses Georg Kinsky’s Musikhistorisches Museum von W. Heyer, Katalog II: Zupf- und Streichinstrumente. Cologne: Kommissionsverlag von Breitkopf & H"artel, 1912 in which viole da gamba were incorrectly classified as viole bastarda, based upon misunderstanding Praetorius

            To conclude, the author believes thus. Viola bastarda and lyra viol music, though different, were suite to the same smaller size of viola da gamba, in different countries and at different times. The term viola bastarda is Italian, and predates all other terms. Thus, all small early bass viols made in Italy, might be identified as being viola bastarda or more likely simply a small bass viola da gamba. When sympathetic strings were placed on the viola da gamba in England, ca. 1600, the lyra viol temporarily diverged from the Italian bass viola da gamba. Thus, the term lyra viol should be reserved for small English bass viols with evidence of having had sympathetic strings. The term is most appropriately used to identify music written in tablature, regardless of actual musical style. The term division viol should be reserved for a larger bass viole da gamba. The term can also be applied to music of a very florid, largely monophonic texture with an occasional accompaniment. Care must be taken not confuse it with Italian viola bastarda music. The term consort bass should be reserved for the largest of the bass viola da gamba, and is evidently the basis of the late baroque viola bastarda, of which the Guidantus viola da gamba is an example. The term can be applied to music of the early English viola da gamba consort, and arguably to continuo music of the later Baroque. Clearly, these terms have been used too loosely by modern scholars, based upon imprecise historic sources.